Written by Alex Baratta, Rui He, and Paul Vincent Smith (University of Manchester, UK)
This post is based on our recently published book entitled Emerging Englishes: China English in academic writing
International students, Chinese cohorts in particular, have long been associated with the ‘deficit narrative’, which includes critiques on their language competence. They are, for example, framed as ‘silent’ or ‘passive’ learners who struggle with speaking fluent English in class discussions or other on-campus activities. However, given the global reach of the English language, it stands to reason that as it spreads from one country to the next, it will change in terms of grammar, vocabulary and style, as it interacts with the influence of local languages. Rather than assume the international language of English comes in a largely monolithic ‘international’ variety, we need to recognise that it comes in multiple varieties, tied to the various countries in which the population have made English their own. It is also important to point out that English is now spoken by more non-native speakers than native speakers. This means that native speakers do not ‘own’ the English language (they never did), while leasing it out to others. Everyone owns it, with individuals around the world having infused English with local linguistic flavour, resulting in Indian English, Ghanaian English, Singaporean English (commonly known as Singlish) and many others. And the extent to which World Englishes differ from native speaker standard varieties in particular does not render them incorrect, deficient or in any way linguistic also-rans.
Going back to the context of Higher Education, this is particularly relevant for international students and universities from around the world. First, many international students, who, while not native speakers of English per se, may well be native speakers of a World English (e.g., Indian English). Second, international students are often expected to conform to, broadly, Western culture, to include the academic culture, without much expectation that staff can also learn from students, and that cultural appreciation needs to be a two-way street. Thus, appreciating our students’ Englishes is a key way to i) appreciate the culture from which their particular English derives, and how students’ home culture is infused within their English; ii) approach internationalisation of Higher Education from a rather under-appreciated perspective, as well as addressing the hegemonic grip of standard native-speaker Englishes as the dominant variety within universities, thus reflecting linguistic decolonisation.
To this end, we conducted a study regarding our Chinese students’ use of English within their academic writing, involving the analysis of 37 essays, and including surveys and focus groups. This level of student engagement is in itself a positive step forward, and they were able to inform us of their attitudes toward ‘correct’ English, as well as the essay analysis confirming years of experience with Chinese students’ use of English, involving systematic features which would suggest innovations, as opposed to the somewhat random nature of errors per se. Examples can be found in the use of terms such as mute English, whichhas nationwide significance in China, even though it is not a term used in the UK. Likewise, the pluralisation of non-count nouns, such as there have been many researches is reflective of China English, even though it is not reflective of native speaker varieties. By making this distinction, we, as educators, can tailor our feedback to recognise the validity of a student’s local English, while, for example, gently guiding them into the use of standard English.
However, we are not disparaging standard English. We are simply making the point that standard English is not ‘better’ – its grammar is not more ‘logical’ than local, or international, varieties of English, for example. Rather, standard English has power because it reflects the people in society who wield economic and political power (hence, London English was chosen to be the standard variety some time ago; if the capital had been built on the River Mersey, then it would have been a different story). Likewise, World Englishes are not any less ‘logical’ or less ‘developed’; English has been spoken in India, in fact, longer than in Australia. And we are not suggesting that students can write however they wish. What we are saying is that staff should be more aware of the diversity of their students’ Englishes as a means to separate true errors from linguistic innovations. This is not an easy task, but the effort made helps us at least not declare local Englishes’ use of grammar and vocabulary as ‘wrong’ or ‘incompetent’. While Chinese students make up the largest number of international students around the world and are the target cohort in our book, the broad point here, as referenced earlier, is that all international students, whose English is outside the standard variety, need to be recognised through their English language.
Further reading
Baratta, A., He, R., and Smith, P. (2024). Emerging Englishes: China English in academic writing. London: Routledge.
Emerging Englishes: China English in Academic Writing – 1st Edition – (routledge.com)
Author bios
Alex Baratta is a sociolinguist, researching language and identity; linguistic prejudice; and linguistic rights, largely within educational contexts. This includes accentism within British teacher training, as well as the validity of World Englishes, such as China English and Korean English, set against the global standard of standard native speaker English.
Social media accounts
Alexander Baratta — Research Explorer The University of Manchester
Rui He is a Lecturer in International Education at the Manchester Institute of Education (MIE) at the University of Manchester, UK. Working as a cross-cultural psychologist, her research focuses on international students’ acculturation experiences and (im)mobility; mental health and psychological wellbeing; Study Abroad (Exchange) Programmes; language, culture, and identity.
Rui He – The University of Manchester profile
Paul Vincent Smith is a Lecturer in Education at the Manchester Institute of Education (MIE) at the University of Manchester, UK. He is a sociologist working in social literacies, higher education policy, student identity, and assessment, in addition to his interest in forms of English and other languages.